Romanticism v. Realism essays

Sentimentalism v. Authenticity papers Sentimentalism versus Authenticity Artistic developments in the nineteenth century were immediate responses towards (or on the other hand against) political and social circumstances during the time. Sentimentalism was a development against the thoughts of the Enlightenment that had been imbued into European individuals since the mid 1700s. The Enlightenment underlined reason and uniform standards in expressions of the human experience. Sentimentalism can be viewed as an immediate rebel against the Enlightenment. Sentimental craftsmen continually strived for one of a kind and various thoughts, while the masterminds of the Enlightenment esteemed consistency. (Craftsmanship Periods: Romanticism) Realism, rather than Romanticism, indicated an objective, dispassionate perspective on the world. The objective of Realist craftsmen was to record an unbiased perspective on the thoughts of French society in the nineteenth century. The significant supporter of the advancement of Realism was the social and political turmoil in Europe in 1848. The French painters responded to the three-day insurgency in February of that year. Toward the finish of the transformation, Louis-Philippe surrendered, which prompted a few back to back complicated governments that endeavored to diminish the serious joblessness issues. Authenticity started to portray common specialists and cultivating networks in scenes of regular daily existence. The artistic creations from this period are exceptionally consistent with existence with no twists. (Rosenblum, pg.218) An remarkable case of a Romantic canvas is The Hay Wain by John Constable. (Rosenblum, pg. 157-158) It is an image that passes on the Romantic thought that nature is the exemplification of every single imaginable inclination. (class noticed) The Hay Wain won a gold decoration at the Salon of 1824 and was imaginative on account of Constables utilization of a palette blade to apply paint. A significant contributing variable in the virtuoso of Constables work is that he painted his works outside, as a piece of nature, instead of in a studio. (Rosenblum, pg.158) In this specific painting, just as ... <!

The Awakening, A Dolls House and the Quest for Freedom essays

The Awakening, A Dolls House and the Quest for Freedom expositions THE AWAKENING, A DOLLS HOUSE AND THE QUEST FOR FREEDOM Both The Awakening by Kate Chopin and A Dolls House by Henrik Ibsen include a mission for opportunity. Both lead characters, Edna and Nora are caught by cultural principles and guidelines. The ladies are additionally constrained by their spouses. In The Awakening Edna acquires opportunity through ending it all, and in A Dolls House, Nora abandons her significant other and kids. Toward the start of The Awakening, Edna is caught, living in a confine, where her job in the public eye is to be a mother and a spouse. Her significant other, Leonce accepts that Ednas job is to care for the kids: He moved toward his better half with her mindlessness, her routine disregard of the kids. On the off chance that it wasnt a moms spot to take care of kids, whose on earth right? He himself had his hands full with his financier business... Be that as it may, Edna sometimes falls short for the job as a mother: To put it plainly, Mrs. Pontellier was not a mother-lady. The mother-ladies appeared to win that late spring at Amazing Isle. It was anything but difficult to know them, rippling about with their all-inclusive, ensuring wings when any damage, genuine or then again nonexistent, undermined their valuable blood. They were ladies who loved their kids, adored their spouses... Edna has been put into the job of parenthood without having any ability for it. She wouldn't like to carry on with the life of Adele Ratignolle, who is an incredible mother and spouse. Rather she tries to be a craftsman like Mlle Reisz. In New Orleans, she disregards her housekeeping errands, and participates in painting, to find her internal identity. She starts to do and feel anything she desires. Her disregard of her family unit obligations maddens her better half, yet she no longer submits to his overbearing. Edna has the housemaid taking care of her youngsters while she is painting. In A Dolls House, Nora puts on an exterior in her home. She assumes the job of a pet to her significant other, Torvald: Th... <!

Events of the Summer! COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY - SIPA Admissions Blog

Events of the Summer! COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY - SIPA Admissions Blog SUMMERFEST is upon us once again!   If youre thinking about a career in international affairs, you need to be here. Summerfest is an annual forum for prospective students interested in graduate programs in international affairs. We will host two events in Washington, DC June 17 and July 9.   And for the first time, Summerfest is coming to New York City on July 16! Alumni, current students and staff representing top professional schools will be available to answer questions.   There will also be an alumni panel presentation at each of the events. We hope you will join us to learn more about our schools and take advantage of the opportunity to network with international affairs professionals. Register for DC or Register for NYC.

Dahl, on Democracy Essay - 1038 Words

Democracy has become the most widespread political form of government during the past decade, after the fall of all its alternatives. During the second part of the 20th century, the 3 main enemies of democracy, namely communism, fascism and Nazism, lost most of their power and influence. However, democracy is still only to be found in less than half of this worlds countries. China with a fifth of the total population had never experienced a democratic government and Russia still doesnt have a well established democracy. By adopting a democratic perspective, 3 types of governments emerge, non-democratic, new democracies, and old democracies, and all have a different challenge to overcome: either to become democratic, to consolidate†¦show more content†¦The role of this assembly was to select citizens for public duties. Whereas key positions were selected through election, other public duties were decided by lottery. Although this is the first record attempt of democracy, many of the ideas of that time have been ignored, when talking about modern democratic governments. Concomitant with the Athenian system, in the city of Rome popular government was introduced as well, albeit under a different name, respublica (from res Ââ€" thing and publicus Ââ€" public). Consequently the republic was similar with Greek demokratia. At the beginning only aristocrats or patricians were allowed to participate at the governing act, but after much struggle the common people [Â….] also gained entry (Dahl, 1998: 13). Only male patricians, later lower castes as well, were able to govern, meaning that women, same as in Athens, were denied any political rights. Starting as a city-state, the Roman Republic conquered territories far beyond its initial borders and gave Roman citizenship to the conquered people. Even though this system might seem sturdy, the impossibility to adjust the institutions of popular government to the increasing number of citizens and the ever-growing Republic is a major flaw. In order to exert their political rights, the conquered people turned into Roman citizens had to participate in meetings in the city of Rome, a tedious and expensive effort, which corroborated with the increase inShow MoreRelatedDemocracy By Robert Dahl : Democracy1518 Words   |  7 Pages Democracy in India Bisharo Hassan 1001638310 POL 100Y1 TA: Nick Through the study of human history it is evident authoritative and monarch governments prevailed as legitimate authorities but with careful considerations these political systems were seen as inaccurate by many. New political systems, functions and responsibilities soon began to surface. Democracy was among these new political systems and argues for the influence of citizens in politics and the protectionRead MoreDemocracy And Its Critics By Robert Dahl1947 Words   |  8 PagesPolitical and civil rights in the same way as both are essential to the structure of a democracy and play very important roles in enabling citizens to take part in politics and help structure their democracy into something that is for the better. We will also closely examine Robert Dahl, Democracy and its Critics, by first going into a brief description of his opinions in chapters 12 and 13 relating to democracy and how rights affect it. Finally we will deconstruct that argument and find the weaknessesRead Mo reRethinking the Finality of and Democracy in the American Constitution1716 Words   |  7 PagesIs the United States Constitution a sacred and absolute document? Dahl (2001) argued that the Constitution is not perfect or permanent in his book, How Democratic is the American Constitution. He stresses that his main aim is not to propose that the Constitution must be amended, but to facilitate readers in changing how they think about the Constitution. In order to help people rethink the Constitution, Dahl (2001) explained the limitations of its Framers and the Constitution’s not widely known undemocraticRead MoreReview of How Democratic Is the Us Constitution809 Words   |  4 PagesConstitution By Robert A. Dahl Context The American Constitution, seen by Americans as guiding light and bedrock of civil rights and democracy is as Robert A. Dahl argues not so democratic and does not guard the rights of individuals. P.18 Dahl places his work asking fundamental questions as to the use and application of the constitution in the modern world, not as an attack as Gordon S. Wood from New York Review of Books clearly states on the front cover. Dahl merely and humbly is asks AmericansRead MoreDemocratic and Undemocratic Aspects of the American Experience1798 Words   |  7 Pages On Democracy: Democratic and undemocratic aspects of the American experience It was the Greeks probably the Athenians who coined the term democracy, or demokratia, from the Greek words demos, the people, and kratos, to rule (Dahl 2000: 11). In most definitions of the term, democracy has come to mean a rule of the people and by the people. However, what precisely the people means has varied considerably from society to society, as has what is considered to be the best way to allow theRead MoreEssay on The Impact Immigrants have on the Economy1478 Words   |  6 PagesI will argue that the elitist theories of Schumpeter and the early writings of Dahl have contributed to the marginalization of these groups and are not democratic at all. Only Dahl’s later work, Democracy and Its Critics, presents a state that can be viewed as truly democratic and applicable in a real political system. Dahl’s work is a synthesis of his learnings, an understand that his original ideas about democracy and the ideals of others left out some key democratic ideals that leave the consumerRead MoreHow Democratic Is The U.s. Constitution1506 Words   |  7 PagesRobert Dahl brought new light on the issue of how our nation views the U.S. Constitution and how effective it came to be. Most importantly, there is the possibility that Americans have the ability to alter the Constitution when it is needed. In Dahl’s book â€Å"How Democratic is the U.S. Constitution?†, he makes us think deeper into the complexities of how the ideals of democracy were framed. Questioning American Beliefs on the Constitutional Convention During many points of the book, Robert Dahl proposesRead MoreDemocratic Governance Essay1276 Words   |  6 Pagesthe most popular topics â€Å"Democracy† discussed and analyzed from the point of theoretical aspect, contemporary research, and application aspect. Objectives This Knowledge Area Module (KAM) looks at democratic governance. This breadth component begins by discussing the theoretical characteristic of democracy. For this study, democratic thoughts of Aristotle, Milton Friedman, Robert Dahl, and John Dewey will be used as guides; will find out the different ideas about democracy. In Breadth componentRead MoreAnalysis Of The Constitution And The Constitution932 Words   |  4 PagesDahl and the Constitution James Madison and the rest of the Founders of the Constitution undeniably founded a government that has withstood the test of time. The question that Robert Dahl poses in How Democratic Is the American Constitution? is whether this form of government and specifically the Constitution is as democratic as it should be and focuses on the Constitution’s shortcomings. Dahl argues that the constitution is much less democratic than it ought to be. Madison, on the other hand, hadRead MoreExample Of The American Constitution927 Words   |  4 Pagesfrequently all the conjured Concerning illustration the framework from claiming american democracy, yet parts about it need aid often underestimated. Robert Dahls book may be a helpful update that the american constitution is far starting with the best could be allowed foundation to equitable framework - Whats more that it may, indeed, a chance to be significantly starting with an perfect gas one.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Dahl recognizes those constitution in the light of the authentic condition encompassing its

Night - 2904 Words

THHS Rachel Kupferberg, Rachel Maschler AP Literature-Band 6 May 1, 2011 Major Works Data Sheet- Night Title: Night Author: Elie Wiesel Date of Publication: 1958 Genre: autobiography, memoir Historical information about period of publication: World War II, and the Holocaust, ended in April 1945 when the liberating Allied armies came through the conquered territories in Nazi Europe. Night describes 16 year old Elie’s loss of faith in God, humanity, family and morality in general. Elie, therefore, vowed to not speak of his experience in Auschwitz, Buna or Buchenwald (or any event between 1943 and 1945, from the beginning of the occupation of Hungary to Germany’s liberation in 1945) for ten†¦show more content†¦Elie’s father died of dysentery, starvation, and exhaustion in Buchenwald, only weeks before the liberating army came to the gates of the camp. After the liberation, Elie described how their first act as free men was to throw themselves upon the provisions for such were the inhumane savages they had become. Describe the author’s style: Elie Wiesel’s style has been described as â€Å"devastating in its simplicity.† Elie is an eloquent writer who in fragmented sentences and thoughts is able to convey his destruction. His passion to convey his story is clear, and his success in doing so is indisputable. Examples that demonstrate style: Certain passages of the memoir depict events of emotional and grueling intensity, in such a vivid way that they convey the surreal manner of life which the prisoners had become forced to endure, and the scenes into which they had been thrown, dreamlike in their fortified connections with the impossible. For instance, during a night of the death march, the prisoners all vied for a place under the meager roof of a hut. They fought for this place, crushing and suffocating others. â€Å"I wanted to get up and disengage myself to allow him to breathe. But I myself was crushed under the weight of other bodies†¦I dug my nails into unknown faces. I was biting my way through†¦I couldn’t breathe through my mouth or my nose†¦This was it; the end of theShow MoreRelatedShadow of the Night619 Words   |  3 PagesShadow of the Night On a freezing, dark blue night of Li, in the Village of Li-Marta. This was an old little village, the houses were nothing but ash and rubble except an old abandoned barn. The barn had creaking floor boards and a rotten wooden roof. In this abandoned barn there lived a young and confident farm boy; his clothes were ragged and full of holes. The young boy was called Rye named after the agricultural god Ren-Rye. As Rye was sitting on the creaking floor boards a thought hit himRead MoreThe Night By Elie Wiesel904 Words   |  4 PagesIn Night by Elie Wiesel, the author reflects on his own experience of being separated from his family and eventually his own religion. This separation was not by any means voluntary, they were forced apart during the Holocaust. Wiesel was a Jew when the invasion of Hungary occurred and the Germans ripped members of his religion away from their home in Sighet. A once peaceful community where Wiesel learned to love the Kabbalah was now home to only dust and lost memories. Most members of that JewishRead MoreNight, By Eliezer Wiesel1585 Words   |  7 Pages There are many important themes and overtones to the book Night, by Eliezer Wiesel. One of the major themes from the book includes the protagonist, and author of his memoire, Elie Wiesel’s ever changing relationship with God. An example of this is when Moche the Beadle asked Elie an important question t hat would change his life forever, as the basis of his passion and aptitude for studying the ancient texts and teachings of Judaism, â€Å"When Moche the Beadle asked Elie why he prayed, Elie couldn tRead MoreStarry Night971 Words   |  4 PagesStarry Night is a beautiful painting, representational in the type of art. The size of the painting is 29 in. by 36  ¼ in., and oil on canvas were the materials used. Van Gogh is using an expressive quality and an emotionalism viewpoint. On the left side of the painting, there is a group of black lines that curve in waves upward, coming to a point. To the lower right, there is a small town that leads up to hills and then mountains. The painting is set at night, and the sky is a wondrous swirl of burstingRead MoreThe Night Sky - Original Writing926 Words   |  4 PagesIt was a dark and stormy night, the wind blows as the ghostly moonlight filled the darkness. George the highwayman made his way toward Bess the innkeeper’s daughte r. She was gazing out the window when the two of their eyes met. Hers, black as the night sky, and a dark red love knot placed on her hair. A red dress made of the fabric silk. Her hair was a dark brown, but could have been mistaken as black. Her outfit fit her personality as much as it did the highwayman. I hope he loves poetry.Read MoreSummary Of Night By Eli Wiesel1561 Words   |  7 PagesNight by Eli Wiesel Amrinder Bhuller P.2 Author: The author of Night is Elie Wiesel. In my opinion, he did a very good job in writing this story! Eli was born on September 30, 1928. Eli is currently 86 and has written a lot of books. Eli had served as a prisoner Auschwitz and other concentration camps. He wrote all his experiences in this book. The Night talks about his experiences in these concentration camps and all he went through. Everything is probably historically correct because he wentRead MoreThe s Night - Original Writing1526 Words   |  7 PagesEverything that happened in Elie Wiesel’s night. I will see, smell, and feel the holocaust through the eyes of Wiesel. â€Å"Alright, uh, Yavin. Nice name. I’m Mr. Hiraku. Are you ready?† the teacher asked, looking down at his chart for my name. â€Å"Yes sir.† I answered, a bit shakily. I had used VR before for video games, but never for something so important. â€Å"Alright. I’m going to read you off some side effects involved with this experience. ‘While participating in the Night VR experience software, you may encounterRead MoreNight, Hope, By Elie Wiesel1580 Words   |  7 Pagesthey grabbed onto it as tightly as they could. Throughout Elie Wiesel’s memoir, Night, hope is a recurring theme. Elie and the people he was around were living in the darkest of conditions, but they still were able to shine a bright light on their situation. They remained hopeful, and this inspired the world. Putting all of this together, it is evident that the theme of hope was demonstrated throughout the book Night because Elie and the Jewish people tried to remain hopeful as they were forced intoRead MoreNight Time Tour951 Words   |  4 Pagesonce more at the sea where the sunset splattered colors of red and orange on the rough surface of blue and violet. Although the boardwalk was lively with smells of French fries and the cries of s eagulls, I nuzzled into the car seat and waited for the Night Time Tour to begin. I absolutely loved long car rides; it was the perfect excuse to let idle thoughts roam and to isolate myself from the world. I only observed the outside through the window of the family van, my personal theater. The images thatRead MoreLife Of The Night Market1280 Words   |  6 PagesDIEBERT 2/8/15 LIFE OF THE NIGHT MARKET Every person has a place that he or she feels comfortable in, a place that he or she is belong to, a place that is important to him or her in some way. My significant place is not a glorious place, but it is different from any other place. The place that is important to me is the night market. It is a local night market right in the heart of downtown Saigon where is located in the southeastern region of Vietnam – my country. The night market has its own beauty;

Professional Development Free Essays

Professional Development Do it and Remember â€Å"Wherever you want to go, you have no choice but to start from where you are†, (Karl Popper) Abstract This paper will delve into the process of an already implemented and on-going proposal of teacher development at a private girls’ catholic school in Capital Federal. The introduction will state the nature of the project, the problems dealt with and the objectives, as well as the population involved. The Literature Review will provide the background necessary for its implementation, which includes some bibliographical references that served as backbone to the project. We will write a custom essay sample on Professional Development or any similar topic only for you Order Now To conclude we will describe the results of the implementation of the proposal , the impact it has had on the subjects involved and its possible future changes, the latter based on a survey attached in the Appendix. Introduction Thirteen years ago I was offered to coordinate the English Department of Primary School at a catholic institution. The population involved in this task were the owners, the authorities of the school, the administrative staff, the teachers, who in the majority had been working at the school for some time, the pupils and, of course, their parents. On first analysing the situation, I set myself two types of objectives: short term objectives and a long term one. The long term objective the authorities commissioned me with, was to improve the level of English of the pupils. This overwhelming task could only be fulfilled if I set myself short term objectives, which would serve as a scaffold to realise such ambitious goal. It entailed thorough work on the teachers’ professional development, as it was my deep belief that the most important asset a school could rely on for its improvement was the teachers. After sitting in during lessons, holding meetings and getting to know the teachers better, I was able to have a clear insight of what the challenges were and, therefore take an appropriate course of action. 2 Literature Review Where to start? After roaming around the school, getting acquainted with the premises, the first task to tackle was create a harmonious atmosphere with and among the teachers and to try to work with them in the same way I expected them to work in their lessons. There were different dimensions to be considered and none was to be overlooked. One of those aspects was the teachers’ expectations with respect to the coordination. The new coordination would certainly bring about changes and I had to find out how eager and flexible they were and if they were not, the challenge would be to provoke the need for change in them. I teach only as well as the atmosphere that I engender. I believe that education is change and that I will not be able to educate unless I am also able to change. (K. Head and P. Taylor (1997- p. 10) For this change to be welcome, the affective dimension was crucial. There was a need to create unstructured time for them to be together and exchange experience and ideas: (†¦) many different experiences that shape your life and make you the person- and the teacher- that you are. (K. Head and P. Taylor, 1997- p. 19) Successful teamwork would only take place if each participants’ individuality were respected. This would create the ground for the teachers to feel that they could be themselves and could each contribute, in their own style, to the process of change and development in the area. Personal awareness of their capacities and skills would mainly result from self reflection and by their own questioning of who they are and what they do rather than by any external training agenda. (K. Head and P. Taylor, 1997- p. 1) The coordination’s initial job was to draw information about the teachers’ needs and deeds, to act accordingly. Sitting in on classes provided the coordination with a clear picture of reality. The positive features were to be enhanced and the negative aspects were to be reversed. To release pressure from teachers, the focus of the coordination would not have to be on the result, i. e, the product of an individual lesson, but on a thorough analysis of the ongoing developmental process. Inspirandose en Sartre (1956), van Lier (comunicacion personal) comenta que en la formacion de profesores les parece util considerar el desarrollo del profesor dentro de un amplio espectro de experiencias (ver figura 1). Tener se relaciona con el conocimiento (de la materia que se ensenan y de pedagogia, del yo y de los demas) y los recursos de que disponen los profesores, hacer con sus destrezas y habilidades para construir oportunidades de aprendizaje, y ser con sus cualidades personales, su vision y su sentido de la mision. (J. Arnold, 1999, p. 22) Ser Tener Hacer Figura 1: Areas para el desarrollo del profesor Consequently the idea of providing workshops that would cater for the needs was implemented. Procedure Planning The implementation of the teachers’ weekly plann ing of their lessons proved to be effective. The teachers received active feedback, comments, suggestions, praising and criticism and were also able to ask questions and clarify doubts and exchange ideas. One way of seeing how the plans were put into practice was to watch lessons. This was very helpful both, for the teachers and the coordinator, as they showed the needs of the teachers, their individual strengths and weaknesses. Self reflection was fostered by posing the teachers questions on problems to consider and analyse. This type of work was demanding. It was carried out for two years, but then changed to personal chats which, though more time consuming, were more profitable and welcome. Collaborative work. Sharing ideas and achievements was an important part of the process. A travelling copybook was one of many resources used along the way. With the motto No teacher is an island (M. J. Wallace, 1998, p. 207) the copybook circulated among the staff. Teachers were encouraged to state the nature of a problem they had. The copybook passed on the 4 rest of them who, voluntarily, tried to give a solution to their colleagues’ problem, or, if they couldn’t, just support. (†¦) professional isolation is ultimately a barrier to professional development (M. J. Wallace, 1998, p. 207) Enhancing teachers’ expertise The identification of individual assets led to, what Wallace calls: useful division of labour. Specifically this resulted in Drama lessons, provided by a teacher who was also an actress, Cooking lessons, a teacher whose family was in the catering business, just to mention some of a variety of contributions; each teacher with their special talent. Workshops In this process, the coordination saw the need to provide teachers with the state of the art in the area of ELT. In order to do this, the teachers were invited to attend in-service courses which sprang from an exploration of their needs. Guided by the motto â€Å"you learn by doing†, the teachers were not lectured on the different trends but experienced their application during the workshops; if they happened to be interested in the theory behind the practice, they could always resort to the detailed bibliography provided. It was important to raise the teachers’ awareness as to the theory behind their action so that they had the tools to choose and change. Teachers use their intuition a lot to tackle different issues in their daily work, what Head and Taylor call action-knowledge. They should become aware that there is always a theoretical background to what they do, and that the awareness of this will broaden their scope of choice in the classroom situation. Teachers’ language proficiency was another issue to consider and develop, as most of them had finished their teacher training courses and had stopped studying English systematically. The workshops were also oriented to improving their language skills. Conclusion The ultimate objective of the coordination can be said to have been reached, though not completely. Its success can be measured externally by an International Exam the pupils sit at the end of their Primary School: Cambridge Preliminary English Test. After a lot of hard work, this has been a great achievement. The teachers were given a questionnaire to complete (Appendix 1) whose results are under analysis. However, the teachers’ immediate reaction to the task resulted in more food for thought than the actual written completion of the questionnaires. The teachers 5 expressed their satisfaction with what had already been done as regards their professional development, and couldn’t suggest any further subject for future courses. This may have two readings: on the one hand, teachers also have a sense of achievement; on the other hand, it should encourage the coordinator to go on with the exploration of possibilities for development and improvement of the teaching staff. To conclude, though we feel that the long term goal was partly achieved, as a result of the implementation of the short term ones, it is clear to us that teacher development should be an on-going, never-ending, life-long process. Appendix 1 Professional Development: Survey- November, 2003 6 Dear teachers, I would be very grateful if you could fill in the following questionnaire and give it back to me as soon as possible. 1. How long have you been teaching English in this school? Write X where appropriate) 1 year More than 2 More than 5 More than 8 2. Have you attended courses for Professional Development at school or elsewhere? Yes: No: If your answer is yes, which courses can you mention? _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ 3. Have your teaching strategies changed in some way as a result of the courses? If so, in what way? _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ 4. What aspects of the school have contributed to your professional development ? give each a mark from 1 to 5, 5 being the most relevant aspect) Choice of text-books: Project work: Collaborative team-work: Coordination meetings: In-service training: Others: ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ 5. What type of course would help develop your teaching further? Make suggestions. _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ Appendix 2 Budget The school paid a salary to the coordinator to perform her duties as such and to help the teachers develop professionally. The teachers, on the other hand, were â€Å"invited† to participate in the workshops and the owners of the school considered that the teachers’ participation in in-service workshops was a fringe benefit for them. References Head, K. and Taylor P. , 1997, Readings in Teacher Development, Heinemann, Oxford Arnold, J. , 1999, La dimension afectiva en el aprendizaje de idiomas, Traduccion de Alejandro Valero, CUP, Madrid. Wallace, M. J. , 1998, Action Research for Language Teachers, CUP, UK. How to cite Professional Development, Papers

Slavery in Africa

Introduction Like in other continents, slavery forms a major component of the African history. Encompassed with a myriad of intertwined factors, slavery in Africa was viewed from different perspectives. With several decades having passed since the abolition of slavery in most parts of the world, historians carry the historic memories of slavery in Africa.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Slavery in Africa specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Ranging from slave trade to child slavery, Africa witnessed countless atrocities, which were mainly perpetuated by powerful countries from Europe and among African communities. In understanding slavery in Africa, it is important to consider its origin and its greatest impact on the continent. This research paper analyses slavery in Africa, detailing its causes, dimensions and abolition among other major aspects of the slavery. Background Europe started exploring ways of e stablishing relationships with Africa through trade between 800 and 1500 AD. It was during this time that Dutch, Spanish, Portuguese and English traders sailed to access many countries in Africa to find market for their products which they bought from Europe and Asia. In their initial efforts, Europeans were interested in the trading of gold, ivory tusks, feathers and other metals that were considered valuable (Claude 23). During this commercial interaction, many European countries discovered that African leaders were willing to exchange some of their people as slaves for other supplies. Several trade routes were also established by colonies in the Atlantic to facilitate trade between several points. According to historic revelation, 1535 AD was the year when the first group of people left Africa for Americas in exchange for several business commodities (Manzo 394). In exchange for slaves, European countries supplied ammunition, riffles and other goods to African kings. After an agr eement was reached between Europeans and African leaders, slaves were packed in huge sailing boats and taken to different American colonies and to the Caribbean Island. While in these Islands, the slaves were traded for molasses, tobacco, sugar and cotton before they exchanged what they received back for guns from Europe (Claude 21). This was the origin of what was later to be known as the Triangle Trade Route which contributed to the sale of at least ten million people from Africa. This practice continued and spread around Africa and other parts of the world before several countries joined efforts in illegalizing slave trade.Advertising Looking for research paper on african american? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More For the case of the United States, the country had to engage in the famous Cold War until 1865 AD when the trade was officially illegalized. It is for this reason that there are men and women in South and North Ame rica of African descent (Miers and Kopytoff 11). Although there has been no consensus on the actual factors that led to the rise of slavery in Africa, many scholars concur that the need for agricultural labor was a major reason that contributed to the rise and escalation of slave trade in Africa. As it shall be noted later, other people have postulated the role of commerce and politics as key players in African slavery. To the contrary, some anthropologists have argued that there were no sufficient reasons to support African slavery, having in mind that most people depended on gathering and hunting as a major source of food. From all directions, Africa as a continent was connected with slavery to the rest of the world as they were key players in the civilization process (Manzo 398). In the northern part of Africa, slavery was mainly practiced in Sahara desert and in those lands which bordered it to the south together with the current Western Sahara, Algeria and Morocco. In addition, Tuaregs practiced slavery in the Central Sahara. The institution of slavery was also common among the Ethiopians, Sudanese, Egyptians and among the Somalis. Slavery was also known in several states from West Africa. Dimensions of Slavery There were two main dimensions that were directly linked to slavery and slave trade in Africa. These were external and internal dimensions. In general, the external dimension involved the trading of slaves across the Sahara, Red Sea, Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean worlds (Marcus 66). Although this trade commenced in ancient times, history reveals that it continued after colonial periods. During early years, African slaves were found working in Greece, Rome, Europe and in the Islamic world among other places. The capture of Constantinople by Ottoman in 1453 led to a stop of the movement of slaves from the Balkans and the Black Sea region. This resulted into disconnection of the Mediterranean from its principal source of slaves, leaving the regio n with no other option but Africa, which became its new source of slaves (Marcus 66). The last period of the external slave trade took place between the 15th to the 19th centuries, involving Atlantic, Oriental and the Islamic worlds. Notably, the Islamic world was sophisticated and selective as slavery served both economic and social functions. Due to this complexity of the market, African slaves were not as valuable as those from Georgia and Circassia.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Slavery in Africa specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Although these girls were on high demand in most parts of the world including Morocco, they were scarce and expensive (Marcus 67).Arabs valued Ethiopian slaves more than any other man because they were believed to be refined and intelligent and therefore they were not suited for heavy duties. On the other hand, external slave trade was mainly conducted within the African c ontinent. The trade was divided into sections; North Africa traded with West Africa while the Southern part of Africa traded mostly with Central and Eastern regions. Ghana was a key player during this period and was highly valued because of its richness in gold that was found in Offin and Pra rivers, which had a high concentration of this valuable mineral. A part from gold, Ghana was also a source of ivory and kola nuts. The Savanna region was a major source of millet, ostrich feathers, sorghum, ivory, wheat, slaves, livestock, cloth and gum (Marcus 68). Acquisition of Slaves Slaves in Africa were basically acquired through fives ways which were: warfare, raiding and kidnapping, pawning, market supply and tribute paying. The main slavery output emanated from prisoners of war (Marcus 68).Warfare was quite common among the forest and Savanna states of East, West, South and Central Africa. Jihads were also influential as they enslaved people ranging from the Red Sea in the east to the Senegambia in the West. On the other hand, slave markets were established depending of the sizes of the regions and members of royalties as they were allowed to move freely to any part of the markets and purchase slaves. Caravan routes offered the best sites for the establishment of these markets, while West and North Africa considered Trans-Saharan routes to be imperative during slave trade (Marcus 70). Similarly, raiding and kidnapping were common practices used to acquire slaves from a particular region. It is believed that these practices were well institutionalized in the Bambara Society while the Berbers and Tuaregs were well known for raiding their neighbors who were found to the south. This method of slave procurement was also utilized by the Damagaram, inhabitants of Northern Nigeria. However, in other regions like Sokoto Caliphate and Nilotic Sudan, the exercise was considered to be a state affair (Miers and Kopytoff 12).Advertising Looking for research paper on african american? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Many other slaves were obtained through paying of tribute (Miers and Kopytoff 171). Yoruba of Nigeria are extensively known for having employed this method. Additionally, the Sokoto Caliphate always ordered tribute from subjects and this was only honored using slaves as the key commodity recognized by leaders and empires. The last method applied in slave acquisition was pawning. This referred to cases where a slave was given out to serve as security for borrowed money. The pawn therefore served as a commitment to settle the debt and was expected to work for the creditor and be taken care of by the host until the debt was cleared. Although pawning was not a direct form of slavery, non-redeemed pawns ended up serving as slaves for the rest of their lives and were common in Ghana, Nigeria among the Igbo and in Mozambique among the Sena (Marcus 67). Roles of slaves Slaves were mainly needed as a major source of labor in agriculture, industry and trade. However a few slaves were employed in administration of the state, empires and kingdoms. Other slaves were used to perform domestic duties, in the military and for personal satisfaction. Agriculture, Trade and Industry Slave labor was necessary for several economic activities among African communities. These activities included hunting, fishing, farming and animal rearing among others. Slaves were also played a major role in collection of food plants like coconuts, shea butter, oil palm and kola nuts (Marcus 70). With regard to trade, slaves mainly served as trading agents, merchants or porter, working for the state and also for individuals. In some cases, slaves took charge of trade roots and were expected to collect taxes as directed by the authority. In addition, slaves worked in several industries including gold mining, cloth weaving, iron working, art and craft industries and salt making. Administration and Military Slaves were highly needed to provide security to kingdoms and empires as well as to serve during warfare. Others served as bodyguards to chiefs and kings whereas a few trusted slaves were entrusted with command responsibilities during battles. During entertainment, slaves were horn blowers and drummers and served as caretakers of the Royal Mausoleum. They also engaged in other departments like finance and kitchen among others (Marcus 71). Domestic chores Both male and female slaves performed domestic roles in shrines, palaces and individual households, engaging in washing, cooking, cleaning, sweeping and fetching of water and firewood. Other slaves were sacrificed mainly during major functions and ceremonies in accordance with traditional beliefs and practices. This was also common as occasioned by death of prominent personalities (Marcus 67). Effects of Slavery in Africa Slavery in Africa had numerous effects ranging from positive to negative, with the latter dominating. The first effect of slavery revolves around the manner in which most slaves were procured by communities a nd empires. As a key method of acquiring slaves, raiding propagated hostility among villages and other attacking groups (Nunn 139). As a result of this animosity, involved parties had to break alliances, agreements, trading relations among other forms of association. Consequently, conflicts between communities were common as each fought towards protecting their own interests. As mentioned before, slavery in Africa presented itself in two dimensions, involving slavery activities within and outside the continent. The trans-Atlantic trade which has deeper roots in African Slavery led to the exportation of at least ten million people from Africa to Europe and other continents. Notably, this number does not account for countless slaves who died during raids or during long journeys to the coast before they were shipped and ferried to various European destinations (Nunn 139 It therefore suffices to mention that these practices turned against different communities as they became impediments towards economic development and social strengthening. Ethnic Fractionalization Raiding and kidnappings, which were core methods of capturing slaves, had detrimental impact on most African societies. Since the attacks happened among African communities, the continent felt the entire impact of slavery (Nunn 141). Accordingly, hostility rose as every community wanted to domineer and protect its people against unauthorized slavery. Several contacts that had promoted peace between communities got broken by insecurity, banditry, and massive suspicion whose main origin was slavery that had escalated to every part of the continent during the 19th century. This discouraged the formation of larger communities and identities and explains why Africa as a continent is fragmented into countless ethnic groups, some of which do not have broader identities. Viewed from a development point of view, ethnic fragmentation significantly hampered development in most African ethnic communities that was c ontributed by raids and insecurity (Nunn 141). Weakening of states High level of insecurity among communities resulted into high demand for weaponry like knives, firearms and swords for the defense of communities. These items were only found in Europe, forcing African kings to export slaves in exchange of these devices that were considered to be very important. The â€Å"gun slave cycle† continued as acquisition of firearms increased both insecurity and the need for high-level security protection (Nunn 142). There was heightened animosity among states as Europeans benefitted from the supply of slaves to meet their needs, causing political instability of not only ethnic groups but also the entire state. In extreme cases of political instability and increased cases of insecurity, governments disintegrated and got replaced by weak and smaller kingdoms. There is documented evidence about the existence of well established political structures, which stagnated and collapsed at the arrival of the Portuguese in the 15th century. In addition, this fragmentation further determined ethnic and language homogeneity among African communities (Nunn 142). Besides these factors, deterioration of legal institutions as people adopted enslavement to be the main method of enforcing the law. Traditional methods like punishment, exiles and compensation were substituted with slavery through paying of tributes (Miers and Kopytoff 171). With slavery having dominated Africa for years, the nurtured society led to a prevalent predatory behavior among most communities that was accompanied with low production. People believed in raiding and forceful acquisition of wealth, which can be linked to continued war in some parts of the continent. On the other hand, some historians argue that slavery led to the introduction of better breeds of animals and crop varieties that promoted high food production (Nunn 143). Conclusion With reference to the above analysis of slavery in Africa, it is clear that these practices had significant impact on the entire African society with some of the effects being felt today. From disintegrated governments to collapsed judicial system, Africa suffered severely in the hands of slavery which was promoted by both external and internal factors. With most societies having been left under insecure governments and unstable social structure, Europe highly benefited from the slavery as it dominated the trans-Atlantic Trade. Works Cited Claude, Melliassoux. â€Å"The slave trade and development.† Diogenes 45.3 (1997): 23-30. Manzo, Kate. â€Å"Exploiting West Africa’s children: trafficking, slavery and uneven development.† Area 37.4 (2005): 393-401. Print. Marcus, Colchester. â€Å"Slave and enclave.† Ecologist 23.5 (1993): 66-74. Miers, Suzanne, and Kopytoff Igor. Slavery in Africa: historical and anthropological perspectives. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press, 1979. Print. Nunn, Nathan. â€Å"The Long-Term Effects of Africa’s Slave Trades.† The Quarterly Journal of Economics 1.1 (2008): 139-176. Townsend, Cummins. â€Å"Keeping score: Winners and losers in the transatlantic slave trade.† Reviews in American History 21.3 (1993): 379-405. 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